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RESEARCH REPORT |
1 Department of Orthodontics, Box 357446,
2 Department of Oral Medicine,
3 Department of Epidemiology, and
4 Department of Dental Public Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-7446;
*corresponding author, ghuang{at}u.washington.edu
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ABSTRACT |
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 TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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KEY WORDS: TMD • risk factors • temporomandibular disorders • subgroups
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INTRODUCTION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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METHODS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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Informed consent, which was reviewed and approved by the University of Washington Institutional Review Board, was obtained from all subjects who participated in the study. Of the participants, 261 Clinic Cases, 121 Community Cases, and 210 Community Controls underwent an interview and clinical TMD examination, conducted in the field by trained and calibrated registered dental hygienist examiners. Based on data collected during the interview and clinical examination, cases were classified into three groups of painful TMD, based on the Research Diagnostic Criteria for TMD (RDC/TMD) (Dworkin and LeResche 1992): one group with myofascial pain only, one with arthralgia only, and one with both myofascial pain and arthralgia. These entities are operationally defined in the RDC/TMD by the presence of specific combinations of signs and symptoms gathered through standardized examination procedures. (It should be noted that these data were collected prior to the development of the RDC/TMD. The examination specifications for this study were identical to those of the RDC/TMD with the following exceptions: (1) The middle temporalis muscle was not palpated, and (2) a click was defined as present if it was detected on a single mandibular movement, instead of on two out of three movements as specified in the RDC/TMD.)
Specific risk factors of interest included self-report of facial trauma ("Have you ever been hit, had a car accident, a sports injury or other accident where you received a hard blow or bang to your jaw or face?"), clenching ("Do you hold your teeth together, even lightly, or clench your jaw?"), oral habits ("Do you chew your fingernails, bite pencils, chew gum, or hold the telephone receiver between your shoulder and jaw?"), orthodontic treatment, third molar removal, recent dental treatment, and stress ("Would you describe yourself as being under stress all of the time, most of the time, sometimes, rarely, or never?"). Somatization (pain items excluded), anxiety, and depression were measured with scales of the SCL-90 as described in the RDC/TMD.
The Clinic and Community Cases were combined in analyses of the three TMD subgroups, since subjects from both groups were required to meet the more stringent criteria described by the RDC/TMD. The chi-squared test was used for the assessment of differences between the pain and control groups in distributions of exposures and potentially confounding variables. Statistical significance was assessed at the 0.05 level, and then adjusted for multiple comparisons by the Bonferroni method. Adjusted odds ratios (OR) were calculated from multiple logistic regression models that included the relevant risk factors and covariates, in addition to age. Temporal relationships between risk factors and age at first onset of TMD pain were explored.
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RESULTS |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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Of the 123 excluded subjects, 93 cases did not meet diagnostic criteria for myofascial pain or arthralgia, 15 cases had missing data for myofascial pain or arthralgia, 13 controls did not report facial pain but met diagnostic criteria for arthralgia, and two controls had missing data for myofascial pain or arthralgia. Disc displacement diagnoses were not an exclusion criterion, and 31% of the subjects in the three pain groups had diagnoses of disc displacement, as did 12% of the controls.
The TMD groups and controls were similar with respect to age, race, median income bracket, and marital status (Table 1
). However, those with myofascial pain or myofascial pain with arthralgia were more likely to be female. The "myofascial pain with arthralgia" group had fewer subjects with education beyond high school.
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). No significant associations were found for the arthralgia-only group.
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). These relationships were not altered by adjustment for race, marital status, income, or education. Among cases reporting previous facial trauma, 82% of subjects reported the trauma to have occurred prior to the first onset of TMD pain. Similarly, 76% of cases with third molars removed stated that the extractions occurred prior to the first onset of TMD pain. In subanalyses comparing controls and cases with trauma or third molar extraction prior to first onset of TMD pain, odds ratios were decreased but remained significant for third molar removal in both myofascial pain groups (Table 4).
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DISCUSSION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODSRESULTSDISCUSSIONREFERENCES |
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We combined the Clinic Cases and Community Cases in our final analyses based on the following factors. First, all subjects in both groups met diagnostic criteria specified by the RDC/TMD. Second, minimal differences in demographic and clinical characteristics between the groups were observed (Dworkin et al., 1990). Third, associations between risk factors and TMD were similar in direction and magnitude in separate analyses of the Clinic Cases and Community Cases. Thus, pooling these groups increased our study power and the precision of our risk estimates.
Several studies have categorized TMD into subgroups similar to those in this study. Studies that examined psychological differences between subgroups (Marbach and Lund, 1981; Eversole et al., 1985; Lundeen et al., 1987; Dworkin et al., 1989; McCreary et al., 1991) generally indicated that patients with myogenic diagnoses had more pain and distress than those with joint-related diagnoses. In a study comparing subjects with disc displacement and those with myogenic disorders (Isacsson et al. 1989), patients with permanent disc displacement reported more pain in the temporomandibular joint in association with jaw function, while those with myogenic pain reported more bruxism and dental discomfort. Pullinger investigated trauma history in association with six diagnostic categories of TMD (Pullinger and Seligman, 1991), and found that a history of trauma was reported by more than 50% of subjects with disc displacement with reduction, disc displacement without reduction, or myalgia only. He suggested that the high incidence of trauma among patients with myalgia only provides evidence that myalgia is not always stress-related. Last, in a study dividing TMD into internal derangements with and those without reduction, a myogenous category, and osteoarthrosis, Lobbezoo-Scholte et al. (1995) found that these four groups were similar for trauma history, occlusal factors, and clinical evidence of parafunction. However, subjects in the myogenous group more often reported parafunction, depression, and worrying.
Overall, these studies suggest that subjects with muscular diagnoses have more severe pain and psychological distress than those with joint diagnoses. If this is true, then muscular pain may overshadow joint pain. The similarity in risk factors among subjects with myofascial pain, with and without arthralgia, observed in our study lends support to this hypothesis. Unfortunately, the small number of subjects with arthralgia only prevented meaningful comparison with subjects with myofascial pain only.
Our findings regarding specific TMD risk factors are generally consistent with those from previous studies, and support the multifactorial theory of TMD etiology currently proposed by several TMD researchers (Clark, 1991; Greene, 1995). Facial trauma, clenching, somatization, and female gender are commonly reported risk factors. However, a potential role for third molar surgery in the etiology of TMD has been infrequently reported (Greene et al., 1969; Butler et al., 1975; Pullinger and Monteiro, 1988; Raustia and Oikarinen, 1991). Furthermore, the only study to include a comparison group to assess this association was that by Pullinger and Monteiro.
Biologic plausibility is one of several factors that should be considered in the assessment of evidence for causation. It is well-known that trauma results in injury and pain. Clenching can be considered a form of microtrauma that results in pain (Okeson, 1998). Third molar removal may involve wide opening of the mouth, application of considerable forces to the mandible, and, if performed under general anesthesia, a reduction in a subject's protective mechanisms. Any of these could result in trauma to the TMJ or the muscles of mastication. The association of TMD with third molar removal merits further study, since this procedure is commonly performed in the United States. Some researchers have advocated a more conservative stance on the removal of asymptomatic third molars, and if third molar extraction does contribute to an increased incidence of TMD, their argument would be further strengthened (Tulloch et al., 1990). High somatization scores suggest the tendency to report distress related to numerous physical symptoms, including pain, and as such, may indicate a generalized heightened perceptual sensitivity. Biological, cultural, hormonal, or environmental factors acting alone or in combination may be responsible for the observed association between TMD and female gender.
We attempted to assess the temporal relationship between trauma and third molar removal by performing secondary analyses restricting cases to those reporting trauma prior to the first onset of TMD. However, because many subjects experienced recurrent TMD pain for which temporal data were unavailable, we were unable to fully assess the impact of trauma or third molar removal. A prospective design would allow for a more definitive assessment of these risk factors.
Our study had several strengths, including the population-based sample of cases and controls; reliable, criterion-based examination of all subjects; and adjustment for potentially confounding variables. We believe that the results of this study are generalizable to other populations with similar demographic characteristics. Limitations include the potential for recall bias, in that cases might be more likely to remember specific exposures related to TMD. In an effort to minimize this, we first questioned subjects about exposures and then about facial pain. Thus, exposure history was ascertained prior to the recall of TMD history. We were also limited by the small number of subjects with arthralgia only. While arthralgia was a common diagnosis, it almost always occurred in combination with myofascial pain.
In summary, trauma, clenching, third molar removal, somatization, and female gender were identified as risk factors for subjects with myofascial pain, as well as for subjects with concurrent myofascial pain and arthralgia. Although this study helps to clarify our understanding of risk factors for diagnostic subgroups of painful TMD, further studies are warranted to clarify the temporal sequence of risk factors, as well as the mechanisms accounting for the association between TMD pain and female gender. In addition, studies with larger numbers of subjects with only arthralgia are needed. A more detailed understanding of specific risk factors may be helpful in the development of targeted approaches to TMD therapy and prevention.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS |
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Received June 11, 2001; Last revision November 19, 2001; Accepted February 12, 2002
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